To What Extent did Hitler Rule Germany with Popular Consent

Table of Contents Introduction Hitler’s Rise to Power Rule by Popular Public Consent Use of Propaganda Rule through Coercion Conclusion References Introduction Hitler is widely regarded as the most disreputable world leader of all time and the crimes committed by his regime are still viewed as the most atrocious in modern history. His rule was marked by the killing of millions of Jews and a dictatorial rule that saw Germany turned into a police state.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on To What Extent did Hitler Rule Germany with Popular Consent? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, Hitler was also a charismatic ruler who was able to inspire the people with his ideas and restore German’s prosperity after the Second World War. His influence was so great that the Nazi party was popularly known as the â€Å"Hitler movement†. This Nazi ruler made use of the constitution to take power and hen ce demonstrated that he could make use of popular public consent. Considering this contradictory phases of Hitler’s regime, it would be useful to research on the nature of Hitler’s rule in order to gain a deeper understanding of the form of leadership that Hitler employed. This paper will analyse the extent to which Hitler ruled Germany with popular consent in order to demonstrate that while Hitler was primarily an authoritarian ruler, he led the country with a lot of popular consent from the masses. Hitler’s Rise to Power The Nazi Party was formed in 1919 as a Right Wing group that promised to restore the country’s prestige following the humiliating defeat in World War I and the subsequent imposition of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany. Hitler joined the party in its first years and rose to the rank of chief propagandist for the party. His brilliant oratory skills and leadership abilities led to his being made Chairman of the party. Hitler and his Naz i party gained formal power following the 1928 election where the party won 12 seats. This modest achievement indicated that the party had a significant following in the country and people were willing to follow Hitler’s leadership (Orlow 1982). The Reichstag elections of July 1932 were very favourable for the Nazi Party, which acquired 37% of the votes making it the majority party in the German parliament. Hitler was made the Chancellor of the Weimar Republic in January 1933. Hitler’s absolute hold on power was achieved in 1934 when he consolidated the office of the president and that of the chancellor in the person of â€Å"the Fuhrer and Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler†. Rule by Popular Public Consent Once Hitler and the Nazi party had seized all power, they implemented policies that turned the country into a dictatorship. Even so, Hitler still engaged in some form of rule through popular consent. Once Hitler was appointed Chancellor in 1933, some positive chan ges became evident in Germany. Many people acquired steady jobs and security was restored.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These factors made people hope for a better future under Hitler. Gellately (2002) observes that in the early years, Hitler was keen not to make any illegal moves that might turn the people against him. Instead, all illegal moves were presented as necessary measures to protect the German population from a communist revolution. Orlow (1982) documents that the middle and upper middle class Germans were the main supporters of Hitler’s actions since they believed that he could prevent a feared communist takeover of Germany and restore Germany’s glory. The masses were willing to live under the Nazi dictatorship in exchange prosperity, security, and good governance. Gellately (2002) suggests that Hitler did not have to use terror to force the majority into li ne since most Germans had already become emotionally invested in the Nazi dictatorship, which promised to bring them prosperity and protect them from crime and a communist takeover of the country. As early as 1935, Hitler was already formulating policies that were popular with the masses. Corner (2009) documents that Hitler’s announcement that general military service was being reintroduced in contravention of the prohibitions of the Versailles Treaty was met with euphoria by the masses. The masses were in support of Hitler’s major rearmament activity that saw the army expanding to a larger size that the Treaty of Versailles allowed. This demonstrates that Hitler was able to garner large portions of popular approval for his policies and the ideas behind them. Unlike other European dictators such as Stalin and Mussolini who set out to break large segments of the population to their will, Hitler hoped to achieve an authoritarian rule that had popular backing. The Nazi re gime was therefore deeply concerned about popular opinion and how the masses reacted to government action. Hitler did not just want the people to adjust themselves to the new system of government but rather to be enthusiastic supporters of it. This notion is best articulated by Gellately (2002) who reveals that the Nazis wanted the public to believe that what Hitler did was in the best interest of the Germans.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on To What Extent did Hitler Rule Germany with Popular Consent? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Fuhrer myth, which presented Hitler as a heroic figure defending popular justice and restoring order in Germany, was integral to his hold on power. Viereck (2004) declares that believe in the Fuhrer myth by the German masses was so important that without it even the combination of army, concentration camps, and a lying press could not have succeeded in keeping Hitler in power. T his myth effectively dissociated Hitler from the party and the government and he was seen as a symbol of the ideal Germany. This myth resulted in an enthusiastic popular consent that was critical in Hitler’s maintenance of power in Germany. The Fuhrer myth enabled the masses to excuse Hitler if things went wrong because the public could place the blame on the officials under Hitler’s command since they were the individuals who actually executed the orders. Majority of the German population supported the crackdown on people who were labelled political criminals by the Nazi. The concentration camps where such elements were sent were widely publicized and many Germans were generally in favour of them. The general population believed that such camps were necessary to maintain the security of the country and ensure that social unrest did not occur. Gellately (2002) elaborates that the citizens were â€Å"pleased that the police put away people commonly regarded as criminal s and the dregs of society† (p.212). Hitler’s crackdown on criminals and political opponents was therefore done with public consent. Noakes (1980) reveals that there was massive participation by many professionals in Nazi policies such as doctors, nurses, and lawyers. These individuals were not fanatics and they participated in Nazi policies on their own volition. This demonstrates that Hitler’s policies were embraced by many Germans who contributed to the implementations of these policies. The coercive practices and repression carried out by Hitler’s regime happened with the support of the masses. Hitler’s rule was marked by widespread persecution and confinement of people who were marked out as enemies of the state. These â€Å"enemies† were mostly individuals on the margins of the society and the public perceived them as a threat.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gellately (2002) illustrates that these targets of discrimination were not chosen out of the mere prejudices and dislikes of Hitler. On the contrary, the definition of â€Å"enemy† was a reflection of the wish of the people. Their persecution and discrimination by the Nazi regime therefore won many supporters for Hitler. Even when citizens expressed disagreement with certain policies of the Nazi regime, they often demonstrated greater consent in other areas and therefore led to an overall support for Hitler’s policies. Bankie (1992) states that while many Germans were disgruntled by the increased surveillance, they celebrated the security that intense police action brought to their streets. Ordinary citizens aided the Gestapo in its work by spying on their friends. Noakes (1980) documents that the Gestapo did not have sufficient manpower to spy on all Germans and 80% of denunciations were made by fellow citizens. This increased the surveillance ability of the Gestapo a nd over 50% of German’s Communist party members were incarcerated by the Gestapo. Gestapo files reveal that the enforcement of Hitler’s racial policies was only possible by the help of ordinary citizens who voluntarily denounced their fellow citizens. Hitler took up policies that increased the popularity of his regime with many groups. In the mid-1930s, he embarked on a privatization effort that saw the transfer of public ownership of companies to the private sector. Noakes (1980) states that this move was popular with the masses and it enhanced government support therefore strengthening Nazi rule. The business community was impressed by the privatization efforts and they supported Hitler. Privatization had a positive impact on the nation’s economy and this endeared Hitler to the masses. Use of Propaganda Hitler’s mass appeal was by the large a creation of the Nazi propaganda machine. The Nazi was able to make popular comments and tell the masses what the y wanted to hear. Associating with the German press and film tycoon, Alfred Hugenberg gave Hitler and his party unrestricted access to the media. Hitler was therefore able to spread his propaganda with great success and manipulate the media to achieve his ends. The Nazi propaganda system was run by Joseph Goebbels who created the Fuhrer myth and spread Nazi ideology to Germans. Control of the press helped the Nazi to exert influence over public opinion and this was very important since Hitler endeavoured to rule under popular support. The Nazi propaganda machine exaggerated on the successes of Germany’s foreign policy and the economic achievements gained under Hitler’s rule. People were therefore able to convince themselves of Hitler’s advantages and saw the positive sides of the new dictatorship that he created (Gellately 2002). Propaganda was used to elicit the support of the public for the expanding missions of the Gestapo, using concentration camps, and disc riminating against the Jewish population. The concentration camps were presented in the media as boot camps where political criminals and other anti-social elements would be rehabilitated through work therapy. The media fabricated stories of how effective and radical preventive approaches were being used to ensure that criminals would not reoffend. Hitler used propaganda to demonise the Jews and this led to the development of the popular opinion that removing the Jews from Germany was the appropriate action (Bankie 1992). Such misleading information led to the support and approval of policies that the public might have been opposed to if they had not been misled by propaganda. Rule through Coercion Hitler’s rule resulted in the loss of individual rights and freedoms by the German population. Individuals lost their freedom of speech and expression and criticism of Hitler and the Nazi state was forbidden. It is rumoured that the Gestapo kept files on every adult and regular rep orts on the person were made through information obtained from ordinary citizens who acted as informants. Those who were found guilty of criticizing the regime were interrogated and sometimes tortured. If found guilty, the individual was sent to a concentration camp or even executed (Orlow 1982). Such an environment ensured that Hitler could rule without the consent of the people and no one could speak up for fear of repercussions. The vocal detractors of Hitler were confronted with violence and this decreased opposition to Hitler. Specifically, the Nazi SS paramilitary wiped out all non-Nazi organizations and political parties in small waves of terror. The Nazi was left as the only active party in Germany many people followed its policies since there was no alternative. Hitler’s regime politicized all aspects of public life and this helped it to gain greater control of the public. Most behaviour of individuals in public was scrutinized and the citizens could get into trouble for insignificant things such as listing to jazz music (Bankie 1992). Such tight control of society by Hitler was not done with the consent of the masses and people only obliged since they feared punishment. People were always reminded of the penalties for opposition to Hitler and this led to coerced conformity. Using the Gestapo, Hitler had effectively turned Germany into a surveillance state and people were aware that they were under close observation by the government. The Schutzstaffel (SS), which began as a subunit of the storm troopers (SA), grew to be the most influential military apparatus of the Nazis. This paramilitary organization was unofficially referred to as â€Å"Hitler’s black-shirted personal bodyguards† and it was made up of individuals who were fanatically loyal to Hitler (Orlow 1982). The unquestioning allegiance to Hitler meant that the SS would do anything to ensure that Hitler’s rule was unopposed. This group therefore dealt severely wit h all parties that were opposed to Hitler’s rule. Conclusion This paper set out to argue that while Hitler’s rule was dictatorial in nature and made use of violence and intimidation, this Nazi leader mostly engaged in rule through popular public consent. The many atrocities attributed to the Nazi regime were done with the support of many Germans. It has articulated that Hitler made use of terror and popular consent to rule the Germans. Hitler was able to gain the backing of most people even as he turned the country from a democracy into a dictatorship. Hitler’s popularity with the masses was unquestionable and many people supported his foreign policy and action against political criminals and anti-socials. The people continued to support him even as he established the Gestapo and made concentration camps. The terror tactics employed by Hitler’s regime targeted specific groups and most Germans were left unharmed. The paper has shown that while Hitler emplo yed repressive measures and propaganda, his rule was mostly by popular consent. All blame must therefore not be laid on Hitler and his top officials for the atrocities committed under the Nazi regime. References Bankie, D 1992, The Germans and the Final Solution: Public Opinion under Nazism, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Corner, P 2009, Popular Opinion in Totalitarian Regimes: Fascism, Nazism, Communism, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Gellately, R 2002, Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Noakes, Jeremy. â€Å"Government, party, and people in Nazi Germany†. University of Exeter Press, 1980. Orlow, D 1982, ‘The Historiography of the Decline of Bruning and the Rise of the Nazis: Comment and Review Article’, Hamburger Beitrage zur Sozial- und Zeitgeschichte, vol. 16 no.1, pp. 748-792. Viereck, P 2004, Metapolitics: From Wagner and the German Romantics to Hitler, Transaction Publishers, London. 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Points and Punctuation

Points and Punctuation Points and Punctuation Points and Punctuation By Mark Nichol Point and words and compounds containing that root, as well as terms with the element punct- and some similar (and not so similar forms), are all cognate, deriving from the Latin verb pungere, meaning â€Å"prick† or â€Å"stab.† Such words are listed and defined in this post. appoint: officially fix or set, or assign or name, or equip or furnish as appropriate; an appointee is a person assigned to an office or position, and an appointment is such an assignment, or an office or position itself, or an arranged meeting (or equipment or furnishings collectively); someone who is self-appointed has taken it upon himself or herself to occupy a literal or (usually) figurative position of authority ballpoint: a type of pen with a point consisting of a small rotating metal point from which ink is transferred to a surface on contact; usually called a ballpoint pen bluepoint: a type of oyster cashpoint: British English term for an ATM checkpoint: a location, generally at a border or entrance, at which entry is monitored colorpoint: a color pattern on a domestic cat consisting of a light-colored body with darker features compunction: misgiving, anxiety as a result of feelings of guilt, or distress about anticipation of an event or outcome contrapuntal: adjectival form of counterpoint (see next entry) counterpoint: something that complements or contrasts with something else, the use of a combining or contrasting element in a work of art, or a melody independent of a given melody; as a verb, arrange or compose in counterpoint, or set in contrast dew point: the temperature at which vapor condenses disappoint: fail or frustrate; disappointment is the quality of failure or frustration, or someone who or something that causes such feelings drypoint: an engraving made without fluid, or a print made from such an engraving embonpoint: plumpness end point: the point of completion of a process or stage; as endpoint, a point or value marking the end of a line segment, an interval, or a ray expunge: mark for deletion, or destroy, eliminate, or obliterate eyepoint: the position of placement of an eye in relation to an optical instrument being used flashpoint: the lowest temperature at which vapors produced by a volatile combustible substance will ignite when exposed to flame, or a point at which something suddenly is created or takes place or someone takes action goldpoint: the temperature equivalent to the melting point of gold gunpoint: the muzzle of a gun (used in the expression â€Å"at gunpoint,† meaning â€Å"having a gun pointed at one†) interpoint: a system of embossing braille on both sides of a paper interpunction: see punctuation knifepoint: the point of a knife blade (used in the expression â€Å"at knifepoint,† meaning â€Å"having a knife pointed at one†) midpoint: the halfway point in a journey, a race, or a process needlepoint: embroidery on a base of canvas, or lace on a base of paper, accomplished with a needle; also a verb describing the action of producing embroidery or lace outpoint: outscore, or sail closer to the wind than another vessel pen point: a metal attachment used for drawing or writing with ink pink: perforate ornamentally or cut a saw-toothed edge on, or pierce or stab, or figuratively wound with speech (other senses of pink are unrelated) pinpoint: a very small or insignificant thing, or a small or sharp point such as the point of a pin; as a verb, precisely aim, locate, or identify, or highlight poignant: emotionally cutting, piercing, or touching, or apt or stimulating, or, in the context of smell, pervasive point: a detail or essential point, the purpose or significance of something, a particular place or position or a geometric element marking a position, an exact moment or interval, a degree, stage, or step, a projecting part or marking, a unit for measuring or tallying, a compass position, any of various punctuation marks or other small marks, a short musical phrase, the head of a bow used with a stringed instrument, a small military detachment ahead of or behind an advance or rear guard or the foremost member of a military patrol, one of various positions of a player in team sports, or the credit or goodwill created by making a good impression; as a verb, sharpen or give emphasis, punctuate or mark with diacritics, direct attention to or indicate direction or position (as with a finger), turn to a particular direction, or indicate a fact or probability point blank: at close range point break: the point at which a wave breaks as it makes contact with a point of land point man: the foremost member of a military patrol, or an advocate, spokesperson, representative, or person at the forefront of a movement or organization point of view: a perspective or position for consideration or evaluation of something pointe: in ballet, a position of balance on the tip of a toe (sometimes referred to as â€Å"en pointe†) pointed: having a point, conspicuous, pertinent, or aimed at an individual or a group pointer: a stick used to direct an audience’s attention to a particular part of a display; a hint or suggestion; any of various breeds of hunting dogs; or a type of computer memory address pointillism: the painting technique of applying small dots or strokes of color to a surface that blend together from a distance; a practitioner of this technique is a pointillist pointless: ineffective or senseless pointy: coming to a point, or having various points that stick out pour point: the lowest temperature at which a substance flows punch: a tool for piercing or for applying pressure to a small area, or a hole or notch produced by a punch; a blow or the action of punching, or energy or forcefulness; strike or prod, or perforate or apply pressure as with a punch, or give emphasis or move forcefully; the sense of â€Å"fruit drink† is unrelated punctate: marked with dots, points, or small spots, or an area so marked punctation: marking of an area with dots, points, or small spots punctilio: a detail in conducting a ceremony or observing a code punction: a piercing punctual: on time; the quality of being on time is punctuality punctuate: mark or divide with punctuation marks such as commas and periods, divide into or interrupt at intervals, or accentuate or emphasize punctuation: symbols used to separate and clarify meaning of units of written content, or the act of using such marks, or something that accentuates or emphasizes punctulate: marked with small spots puncturation: the act, process, or state of being punctured, or arrangement or form of punctures puncture: an act of physically piercing or figuratively damaging, a hole or wound made by piercing, or a small depression; as a verb, pierce or deflate pungent: painful or pointed, or having an intense flavor or odor, or creating an irritating sensation silverpoint: a drawing technique using silver on a specially prepared surface standpoint: see â€Å"point of view† touchpoint: a point of contact between a buyer and a seller viewpoint: see â€Å"point of view† waypoint: a location on a route Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:75 Contronyms (Words with Contradictory Meanings)"Confused With" and "Confused About"5 Erroneously Constructed â€Å"Not Only . . . But Also† Sentences

Is the management of culture an ethically acceptable use of power Essay

Is the management of culture an ethically acceptable use of power - Essay Example ly, exercising given powers in a way that recognizes important issues to deal with, establishes priority areas in addition to sorting out competing values while the third aspect calls for moral evaluation where analytical skills are used in evaluating available options. These are a few aspects to consider when making value judge on whether management of culture is an ethically acceptable use of power or not. Therefore, ethical behaviour from those in authority is an important component of organizational culture given the need to be fair and just when handling different groups that interact during the operation of organizational activities (Johnson 2011). Ethical discussions about management of culture should be based on the reasons and importance of having a strong organizational culture. Strong organizational culture is an essential component that creates the necessary environment for achievement of organizational objectives, motivation of employees to be more productive in addition to enhancing management’s decision making process. Consequently, the use of power by any official should be directed towards achieving these goals (O’Donnell and Boyle 2008). Managers should not use the need for an established culture to target those who are perceived to have contradicting views on how to run the organization. Ethical decision-making should ensure that all with divergent views are accommodated into the organization. Trevino and Brown (2004) note the importance of making moral judgement by focusing on what is right and not necessarily doing what is right when making decisions that affect the organization. The authors assert that principled individuals have a high disposition to stick to their moral judgments even under pressure where they are more likely to resist pressure to behave unethically. Resistance emerging from the individuals who oppose new measures aimed at transforming existing culture or changing it completely most often frustrates managers (Secord

Public Budget and Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Public Budget and Finance - Essay Example Taxation is a symbol of civilization since it has always been the source of revenue for empires and states since historic times (Samson, 2003, p21). Taxation generally developed as a method of nations giving legitimate protection to their subjects and their properties. The Ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans had taxes that required nations to pay the state for the use of land. In Medieval times, this was modified into a feudal system where nobles collected taxes from citizens in return for protection. This was popular in England. The UK Parliament imposed property taxation on their colonies in North America in 1634 (Jensen, 1934 p2). After independence in 1776, the Patriots used taxation to build revenue for the nation, influence peoples spending habits and promote justice and fairness in the nation (IRS Website, 2011). From 1781 – 1789, the Constitution gave the states the right to tax their people. This meant that states had to come up with their own tax regimes and set up local tax jurisdictions for the collection of taxes. The taxes were mainly in the form of tariffs and excise duties. States had the right to set up their own local government systems and the states paid some money to the Federal government in proportion to the volume and population of each state. Between 1862 and 1872 during the American Civil War, the Federal Government had to take more revenue from the individuals (IRS Website, 2011). This implied that the Federal Government had to supervise the collection of taxes from the local level to the state level to ensure that the war could be funded appropriately to restore the constitution and its various requirements. From 1913 to present, the 16th Amendment gave Congress the right to oversee the collection of taxes (IRS Website, 2011). This therefore implies that Congress has the right and responsibility of supervising states to set up tax jurisdictions and local offices to collect taxes for the funding of public

The Internationalization Of Higher Education Education Essay

The Internationalization Of Higher Education Education Essay This study on the internationalization of higher education pursues this objective. Provide a brief overview of the nature and development of internationalization in the higher education system. This will shed light on relevant concepts and strategies from a global, European and domestic perspective and provide background information for an in-depth analysis of the objectives and organizational measures of studies for foreigners in United States and studies abroad for American students. Results of the Study The following overview will give the reader a brief summary of the results of the survey. Internationalization Strategies Internationalization of higher education is guided by the ideals of academic universality, the humanitarian objectives of social developmental aid work abroad, and the incentives of securing economic productivity at home. In the age of globalization, international mobility is increasingly used to boost USAs competitiveness as a place to study. The market orientation of internationalization and the social dimension of international student mobility are two conflicting aspects of higher education that require corrective policies to bring them into balance. United States continuous attractiveness as a place to study has to go hand in hand with reforms of the structure of higher education studies and measures to improve the general social conditions of students. The market orientation of studies for foreigners involves targeting specific groups of students. SUMMARY As the number of high school graduates in the United States levels off, the competition for international students is getting fiercer as universities attempt to meet their enrollment goals. U.S. universities however are not competing only with each other, but institutions from other countries as well. Rapidly increasing numbers of students in foreign countries have boosted international mobility, resulting in 2.7 million students who study abroad every year. The main countries of origin for foreign students are China, India and South Korea. Industrial countries are the destination of these mobile students. Data shows that the U.S. currently has the largest share of international students worldwide; In terms of absolute numbers, the USA is the worlds leading host country. Mobile foreign students represent 3.7% of the total student population in the USA. However this market share is decreasing due to increased competition from other countries and a perception that international students are not wanted in the U.S. after more stringent visa policies were instituted in response to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 making it much harder to obtain a student visa. Having more international students enrolled in U.S. universities benefits both the universities and the U.S. government, hence there must be a more coordinated effort between the two in order for the U.S. to recoup its lost market share and maintain its rank as the top destination country for international students. In this paper I will attempt to show that the current U.S. policy of attracting international students to this country cannot sustain the demand of U.S. universities, nor effectively compete with the policies and efforts of other countries; instead international education, including curricular integration, study abroad and student exchange must be central to a new, USA High Education System Strategic Planning for the 21st century. As a result of this national strategy, the students will need to work successfully and comfortably in multiple cultural contexts with people who hold values and viewpoints which vary significantly; Students will be the future leaders and educators in an environment which increasingly requires an international perspective; What exactly is the Internationalization of higher education? Internationalization has become an important issue in the development of higher education. Sven Groennings (1987) describes it as one of the most powerful substantive development in the history of American higher education (p/2). It is perceived as one of the laws of motion propelling institutions of higher learning (Kerr 1990, 5); as a major theme for the next decade (Davies 1997, 83); and as one of the most important trends of the last decade (Teichler 1999, 6), if not of the past half century (Altbach 2000c, 2) De Wit (2002) uses three terms to highlight the complexity of defining internationalisation, namely international dimension, international education and internationalisation of higher education, each referring to a specific phase of the development. He uses three interrelated arguments in which (i) he sees the international dimension of higher education, prior to the 20th century as more incidental, than organised; (ii) states that this international dimension as an organised activity, referred to in general by the term international education, is a product of the 20th century introduced first mainly in the United States for reasons of foreign policy and national security. (iii)The third argument is that around the end of the Cold War, this international dimension evolved into strategic processes, referred to as the internationalisation of higher education and became increasingly linked to globalisation and regionalisation of our societies and the impact of this on higher education. He further argues that with the development of globalisation, the international dimension will evolve into an integrated element of higher education and move away from its present position as an isolated set of activities, strategies and processes. This is manifested in a shift in emphasis from more traditional forms of international education to strategies that are more directly related to the core functions of the university, and in a shift in emphasis from political to economic rationales. The implications of these shifts are the increasing importance of quality assessment of internationalisation strategies, the emergence of English as the common language of higher education, the increasing relevance of international networks and strategic alliance, and the gradual acceptance of the internationalisation of higher education as an area of research. De Wit points out the need to relate the internationalisation of higher education in todays world to the general roots of the university, and to place the present developments in historical perspective. His work (2002) makes a useful contribution to the unfolding of this phenomenon in the European and American higher education systems. Another study (De Wit et al., 2005) examined the internationalisation of higher education in the Latin American context. Related issues and concepts It is interesting to take a look at the third Global Survey Report on Internationalization of Higher Education, which was recently released by (IAU 2009).   This comprehensive survey is the largest of its kind worldwide, and includes responses from 745 institutions in 115 countries. For purposes of analysis, the results were clustered in the following regions: Africa, Asia-Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East, and North America (the U.S. and Canada). Even though the survey is on its third edition, it still has limitations which fortunately are acknowledged and explained in the document. According to this survey, the top five reasons for internationalizing an institution are, in order of importance, to improve student preparedness; internationalize the curriculum; enhance the international profile of the institution; strengthen research and knowledge production; and diversify its faculty and staff. However, when the information is analyzed by regions, interesting variations are found. For instance, both North America and Latin America give much more importance to international preparedness of students than Europe. Interestingly, institutions in Africa consider as the more important internationalization rationale, to strengthen research and knowledge production. The Middle East gives the highest importance equally to improving student preparedness and also strengthening research. Results suggest also that institutions in North America are not bothered with the notion of increasing their international profile.   For them, this is placed at a distant fourth level of importance in comparison with, for instance, Europe where it is the second most important rationale. I wonder if this can be explained by some degree of insularity, or a somewhat egocentric perspective of the regions status in the world of higher education. Surprisingly, all regions gave an extremely low importance to internationalizing the campus with the idea of diversifying sources of income or in response to public policies. When asked about the most important benefits of internationalization, the top three reasons at the global level listed in order of relevance were: increasing international awareness of students; strengthening research and knowledge production; and fostering international cooperation and solidarity. The only significant difference in this otherwise very consistent pattern was offered in the IAU Survey by institutions in North America for which international cooperation and solidarity was not considered as beneficial as it was in the rest of the regions. This factor placed a worrying 5th in North America Another puzzling finding of the survey has to do with to which geographic region higher-education institutions are turning their eyes for their internationalization work. The aggregate results show that no major shifts have happened in the last five years. And the winner is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Europe! (Asia-Pacific region was placed second.) The bronze medal goes to North America. Nevertheless, the analysis by region should be a matter of concern for policymakers in some parts of the world. For instance, in the Asia-Pacific region the first geographic priority for the internationalization policy in the majority of their institutions is Asia-Pacific, followed by Europe. For European institutions the first priority is placed on Europe itself and the second one on Asia-Pacific. For North America the first priority is Asia-Pacific, followed by Europe. Latin America and the Middle East consider Europe as the key regional priority. Sadly, the only region considering Africa as the principal pr iority is precisely Africa, but aside from that, none of the regions even consider Africa as a second or third priority. THE FIELD OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION International education has a somewhat unusual position in higher education. While recognized as an important sphere of activity, it tends to be handled by administrative offices at the top of departments of languages and literature and international affairs. The scholars involved in international education usually have their primary involvement in other teaching and research. This leads to four distinctive characteristics particular to the field of international education: 1. There is little consensus concerning the guiding theme of the field as well as its scope. Should the field stress internationalization, transnationalization, or globalization (Barrows, 2000; Committee for Transnational Competence, 2000; Hilary, 2000) 2. International education is not a prominent feature of the contemporary higher education experience. Using enrollment in foreign languages as an indicator, 16 percent of all U.S. college students were enrolled in foreign languages in the peak period of the 1960s; the proportion is currently down to 8 percent (Hayward, 2000, p. 6). 3. There is imbalance in regional coverage. The regions and languages covered at a particular institution are a function of idiosyncratic patterns of faculty recruitment. Nationally, there is reasonable coverage of Western Europe and Latin America and most European languages compared to limited coverage of Africa and the Middle East. For students enrolled in foreign languages, Spanish is the most popular followed by the other major languages of Western Europe; 6 percent enroll in Asian languages. Languages of the Middle East make up only 2 percent (1.3 being Hebrew and .5 percent Arabic). The languages of Africa constitute only 0.15 percent of enrollments. 4. Because international education is not a primary concern of most scholars in the field, research is somewhat sporadic, non-cumulative, and tends to be carried out by national organizations as part of advocacy projects (e.g. Lambert, 1989; Brecht and Rivers, 2000). The most recent example is the American Council of Educations (ACEs) Internationalization of Higher Education: A Status Report. (Hayward, 2000). Historical data Following the events of September 11, the total number of international students studying in the United States leveled off and even dropped slightly after 2002, though enrollment numbers have recently rebounded. (See fig. 1.) According to the Institute of International Education (IIE), the decline in the number of international students attending U.S. higher education institutions between 2003 and 2006 was the first drop in over 30 years. While the United States continues to be the leading destination for international students, the U.S. share of international students worldwide dropped-from 26 to 20 percent between 2000 and 2008.  [1]  (See fig. 2.) According to the Pew Global Attitudes Project, since 2002 the United States image has declined in both the Muslim world and among many of Americas oldest allies. In the wake of September 11, the United States also tightened its immigration policy and made it more difficult for foreign nationals, including international students, to a pply for a visa. As we previously reported, these changes, made to help protect our nations security interests, may have contributed to our declining share of international students and the perception that the United States was an unwelcoming place for international students. (GAO 2007) The U.S. government seeks to improve global attitudes toward America through diplomatic and development assistance efforts, which include funding higher education for international students in the United States. (GAO, 2008) Nine weeks after September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush said (Bush, 2001): We must also reaffirm our commitment to promote educational opportunities that enable American students to study abroad, and to encourage international students to take part in our educational system. By studying foreign cultures and languages and living abroad, we gain a better understanding of the many similarities that we share, and learn to respect our differences. The relationships that are formed between individuals from different countries, as part of international education programs and exchanges, can also foster goodwill that develops into vibrant, mutually beneficial partnerships among nations. Americas leadership and national security rest on our commitment to educate and prepare our youth for active engagement in the international community. On February 27, 2002, Secretary of State Colin Powell reaffirmed the State Departments support for foreign students: The Departments policy on student visas is based on the democratic values of an open society and the perception that foreign students make an important contribution to our nations intellectual and academic climate, as well as to our nations economy. We must continue to nurture these vital relationships even as we improve the security of our borders. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ American values, including democracy, economic freedom, and individual rights, draw students from many nations. As these students and scholars from other countries gain from our society and academic institutions, they also serve as resources for our campuses and communities, helping our citizens to develop the international understanding needed to strengthen our long-term national security and enhance our economic competitiveness. The professional partnerships and lifelong friendships that are created through international education are important for a secure, prosperous future, not only for our own country but also for th e world as a whole. The New York Times, in a September 24, 2002, editorial, suggested that our efforts to spread our influence and understanding of our culture should be stepped up, not abandoned. Cautioning that government policies must not impede legitimate exchange, the editorial said, Higher education is one of the best methods we have of spreading the word about who we are and of exposing our citizens to non-Americans. Bringing foreign students onto our campuses is among the best favors we can do ourselves. While the federal government provides funds for the education for international students to achieve public diplomacy and development objectives, the vast majority of students who come to the United States to study do not receive funding from the U.S. government. According to the Institute of International Educations Open Doors 2008 report, 623,805 students came to the United States to study during the 2007-2008 academic year and nearly 9 out of 10 international students reported their primary source of funding for education as coming from either personal and family sources or from their host college or university in the United States. Who are the main players in the international market for students? In order to have a genuine perspective on the reality of the competitors that the U.S higher education institutions face, it is useful to have a look at what the international outlook has in store. According to the Institute of International Education, the number of international students in U.S. higher education institutions has increased in most years since 1955. According to IIEs Open Doors 2002, the authoritative source of data on international student enrollment for academic year 2001-2002, This years 6.4 percent increase in international student enrollment in U.S. colleges and universities equals last years increase, which was the largest increase in the past 20 years. This continues a trend of substantial growth in foreign student enrollments that began in 1997, after a four-year period of minimal growth. It is quite evident that although the absolute numbers are increasing, U.S. market share is decreasing. According to IIE, the U.S. share of internationally mobile students-the proportion of all international students who select the United States for study-declined by almost ten percent from 1982 to 1995, the last year that IIE did the calculation (39.2 to 30.2 percent). In itself, that is not an alarming statistic. U.S. market share is still healthy, and the argument could be made that our nearly 40 percent market share was unsustainable. It is what lies behind that statistic that is alarming. Merely the existence of fiercer competition is not the only reason for the declination of U.S. market share. at least two other factor can be noted. First, it is reflects aggressive recruitment efforts by the competitors of the USA-the usual suspects, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany and more recently China and others-who have determined that they want to reap more of the foreign policy, economic, and educational benefits those international students bring. Combined with the distinctive absence of such a conclusion on the part of the United States, which apparently assumes that international students will always come because they always have such complacency risks the loss of this countrys leadership in international education, with the accompanying negative ramifications for our security, foreign policy, and economy. Second, the declination U.S. market share does not appear to reflect any decline in international demand for U.S. higher education. Demand is still strong. The problem is access. While competing nations seek to remove disincentives to study in their countries, U.S. policy ignores-and sometimes exacerbates-the disincentives to study here. The problem lies not in the internationally popular product, nor in the highly motivated customer, but rather in market imperfections that keep the two from finding each other. Those imperfections are all subject to the control or the influence of American public officials. If they continue to ignore these factors, the market share that the American high education currently enjoys, will continue to be eroded out to the competition. Ultimately, whats wrong with this picture is the absence of a strategy to sustain the number of foreign students coming to the USA. For a generation after World War II, the United States had a strategy of promoting international student exchange as a means of waging the Cold War and promoting international peace. But now more than ever, the U.S. government seems to lack overall strategic sense of why exchange is important-and, therefore, of what U.S. interests are at risk by not continuing to foster exchanges. In this strategic vacuum, At the most basic-and encouraging-level, the problem is not one of weakness. The United States has every resource it needs to be successful in attracting international students-and, indeed, has been successful at it. The United States has more higher education capacity than our major competitors combined, the high quality of U.S. higher education is universally recognized, and the United States is a magnet for many throughout the world. The problem is not how to make the United States and its higher education system more attractive, but how to make them more accessible. A strategic plan is needed to address them. The principal barriers to access are: (1) The absence of a proactive, coordinated effort to recruit international students; (2) Burdensome U.S. government regulations, which often effectively cancel out recruitment efforts. (3) The cost of U.S. higher education, (4) The complexity of American higher education system. All of important powers have historically used education for international students as a tool to advance diplomatic, development, economic, and other objectives, often simultaneously. In the survey of GOA 2009 titled HIGHER EDUCATION Approaches to Attract and Fund International Students in the United States and Abroad (GOA 2009), the approaches of several countries have been analyzed. For example, Australian officials said that international higher education helps Australia achieve economic goals. Education was Australias third largest export and contributed $15.5 billion in Australian dollars (about $13 billion in U.S. dollars) to its economy in 2008. International students also help Australia meet its foreign relations and diplomatic goals. According to Chinese officials, providing international educational opportunities to foreign students is part of their strategy for promoting cultural, scientific, and technological exchanges between the East and the West. China develops exchanges with other countries in the fields of education, science, and technology to strengthen friendship and understanding between the Chinese people and people around the world and to promote modernization in China. China reported that its collaboration with foreign universities and educational institutions helps to develop an exchange network that allows it to send the best students to study in the best universities under the supervision of the best advisers, mutually benefiting institutions and countries. Officials from Germanys national agency that supports international education, stated in the GOA report that international students help Germany advance several goals, including increasing the international appeal of German universities and promoting the academic, economic, and democratic development of developing countries. German officials said that their ability to advance several goals simultaneously is an important strength of international education. For example, international students studying in science and technology help advance German research and innovation goals while also advancing public diplomacy goals by returning to their home countries as unofficial ambassadors for Germany. Officials in the United Kingdom (UK) reported that international education contributes to building a high-skilled workforce, helps build relationships with people from around the world, enhances understanding about each others cultures, and opens doors to trade, investment, and political influence. The European Union (EU) also seeks to advance several international education goals, including promoting intercultural understanding through cooperation with non-European countries as well as ensuring that education and training are accessible to the global community. To promote their higher education systems internationally, countries like the United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia have developed broad marketing strategies with a focus on outreach to international students. These marketing strategies include developing a national brand through the use of logos and slogans to promote higher education systems among international communities, much as a corporation would promote a commercial brand, as shown in figure 3. The financial outlook. Internationalization of higher education is good business for the U.S. economy. While this is not in the most important reason for reaching out to such students, it is nevertheless one the basic driving force leading competitor countries to adopt proactive strategies for attracting them. NAFSA (Association of International Educators) estimates that international students and their dependents spent nearly $18.78 billion in the U.S. economy in the 2009-2010 academic year, which makes international education a significant U.S. service-sector export. (NAFSA 2003) This economic benefit is shared by schools, communities, states, and the U.S. economy as a whole. According to the Institute of International Education, more than 70 percent of undergraduate international students pay full tuition and receive no financial aid, thus allowing schools to offer more financial assistance to American students. The Statistical Analysis of The Economic Benefits of International Education to the United States for the 2007-20010 Academic Years estimates that foreign students and their dependents contributed approximately $15.54 billion to the U.S. economy during the 2007-2008 academic year; approximately $17.6 billion to the U.S. economy during the 2008-2009 academic year; And approximately $18.78 billion to the U.S. economy during the 2009-2010 academic year. Every higher education institution has more or less received ample financial benefits. For example at New Yorks Columbia University, international students accounted for 21 percent, or about 7,000, of the student body in the 2008-2009 school year. These students funneled almost $250 million to Columbia in tuition and living expenses, according to a report by its international student office. (Laya 2010). At South Florida University for example in-state U.S. citizens pursuing undergraduate studies pay $5,100 in tuition annually, out-of-state students; including those from foreign countries, pay about $15,900, more than three times as much. (Fischer 2010. Chronicle of Higher Education) For schools like South Florida, increasing the number of international students also means increased revenue. But this is not the only benefit that international students bring. United States has relied on undergraduate and graduate students from other countries as important sources of innovation and productivity in our increasingly knowledge-based economy. Such students who remain in the country after completing their studies have brought needed research and workforce skills and strengthened our labor force. For example, international students have earned about one-third or more of the degrees at both the masters and doctoral levels in engineering, math and computer science, and the physical sciences. Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft, says U.S. visa curbs on immigrants with special skills in science, math or technology must be overhauled.If we dont, American companies simply will not have the talent to innovate and compete, Gates said in testimony to the House Committee on Science and Technology on March 12, 2008. (Laya 2010). In addition, U.S.-educated students take home preferences for Am erican products, and business students in particular take home an education in U.S. business practices. By any measure, international education makes a significant contribution to the U.S. economy. Is there a correlation between the role nations to play in the international scene and the internationalization of their universities? Our ability to relate to and interact with those whose cultural backgrounds differ from our own will be among the determining factors for the future of our societies. For most people, regardless of whether they aim for international careers or life in their local communities, intercultural dialogue will become a fact of life rather than an option. Education will need to play a key role in developing the ability to conduct intercultural dialogue, which is an integral part of developing democratic culture. A panel of leading experts in national security, higher education, and foreign policy made a strong case for the need to place international education at the heart of Americas public diplomacy efforts, at a policy forum November 16, 2006. The speakers were Dr. Joseph S. Nye, Distinguished Service Professor at the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University; Ambassador Cresencio Arcos, Director of International Affairs at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security; Sanford J. Ungar, President of Goucher College; and the Honorable Jim Kolbe, United States Congressman (R-Ariz.). (NAFSA 2005) Joseph Nye stated that the presence of foreign students in American universities is a tremendous resource for American soft power.'   He told a story about the influence of educational exchanges on reform and dissident elements in the Soviet Union during the Cold War, and noted that while hard power is necessary, it is [also] essential to get our story out, and the best way to [do that] in terms of winning hearts and minds, the best emissaries are really people who have been [to] American universities and return home. Nye acknowledged improvement in the visa process but said we have quite a long way to go to ensure that we keep the doors open and remain an attractive destination for international students. Goucher College President Sanford J. Ungar focused his remarks on the importance of promoting study abroad among American college students. Goucher recently instituted a new policy that requires all of its students to study abroad before graduation. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) Ungar stressed that the international education of todays students must be an urgent matter of public policy and an important component of public diplomacy. Representative Jim Kolbe (R-Ariz.), the final panelist, (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) spoke specifically about his efforts and those of Congressman Jim Oberstar (D-Minn.) to urge the establishment of an international education policy for the United States, most recently through their introduction of House Concurrent Resolution 100.   Tying together the comments of the other panelists, Kolbe said: We cant lead in a world that the American people dont understandà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦We cant have a successful foreign policy with out internationally educated and aware citizens who support that foreign policy and who understand, relate and interact with the people of all countries that we are engaged with. Andà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a successful foreign policy depends on our being able to educate future leaders from around the world about our way of life, our system of government, our culture, our political sy

Iago’s ego in “Othello” by William Shakespeare Essay

Sometimes there are people who are so evil and deceitful one can just feel dirty. Listening to them talk, hearing their words, and seeing their actions just makes one’s skin crawl. During the reading and the viewing of Othello it doesn’t take long to get this feeling about Iago. He is such manipulative, self-serving, and dishonest person; making it obvious he would be a man with a personality disorder. A narcissist is one who is only concerned about one’s self, manipulative, and will use anyone to get what they want. There is no doubt that Iago is the destructive villain in this play. Without Iago’s horrible traits and conniving actions this play would be very boring. He has been considered one of the most villainous characters of all time. Being around a person this evil is very frightening, they are able to accomplish so much with their manipulation. In this play there is no time wasted introducing the real characteristics of Iago. We see his self-servin g anger issues from the beginning. Iago is quick to mention his hatred for Othello (1.3.365). Iago’s ego has been hurt by Othello claiming Cassio as his lieutenant and passing up Iago. Iago feels that he has way more experience in battle than Cassio and just pretends to serve Othello until he can get his revenge (1.1.10-40). Iago mentions later that Othello slept with his wife, Emilia: â€Å"And it is thought abroad that twixt my sheets he’s done my office† (1.3.366-367). Roderigo is the first person to fall to his deceitful ways. Iago’s craftiness get Rodergio to trust him with his with his money; Rodergio says, â€Å"That thou, Iago, who hast had my purse as if the strings were mine†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Iago states, â€Å"Put money in thy purse† (1.3.328) so that he might be able to win Desdemona’s love with gifts Iago will buy her. But the dishonest plan is here because he plans on keeping that money for himself. It is amazing to watch how quick and smart Iago can be with the other characters. He is able to quickly take a situation and find a way to use others as pawns to work his plan out. He is words and actions are so manipulative putting thoughts in others heads in order for them to assist him in his master plan.

How to Find Samples of Lyric Essay

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